Friday, March 19, 2010
References
Artemisia herba-alba and A breeding pair of N. Bald Ibis at nest flanked by an
unpaired individual. (Photo G. Serra)
© Olivier Meerson | Dreamstime.com
http://www.tropical-rainforest-animals.com/pollution-effects.html
By Grace Di Pierri of www.green-and-simple-living.com
Jeremy Colls
Henrylito D. Tacio
Weather bureau chief Graciano Yumul
PAGASA (The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services
Administration)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_%28disambiguation%29
(Wilcove & Master, 2008, p. 416).
(Kotiaho et al., 2005, p. 1963)
(Ishwaran & Erdelen, 2006, p.179)
(Minteer & Collins, 2005, p. 333).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature
Philippine Star, 24 January 2003
Philippines Daily Inquirer, 7 January 2003De Guzman, Eliseo A. (1994). Fertility and mortality in the Philippines: estimates
from recent data. In
Population, Human Resources, and Development, A.H. Herrin, ed. Quezon City:
University of
Philippines Center of Integrative and Development Studies, pp. 191-278
National Statistics Office (2000). Survey of Overseas Filipinos (SOF), Manila,
Philippines: NSO.
Available online at http://www.census.gov.ph/data/pressrealease/2001/of00tx.html
National Statistics Office (NSO) [Philippines] and Macro International
Incorporated (MI) (1994).
National Demographic Survey 1993. Maryland, U.S.A.: NSO and MI, 1994.
National Statistics Office (NSO), Department of Health (DOH) [Philippines] and
Macro International
Incorporated (MI) (1999). National Demographic and Health Survey 1998. Manila,
Philippines:
NSO and MI.
http://www.indexmundi.com/philippines/uhttp://www.international.canurb.com/philipp
ines.phpnemployment_rate.html
http://salaswildthoughts.blogspot.com/2008/05/latest-philippine-population-census.
Pollution (Air, Water, and Terrestrial - Causes, effects)
"Pollution effects are indeed many and wide-ranging. There is no doubt that excessive levels of pollution are causing a lot of damage to human & animal health, plants & trees including tropical rainforests, as well as the wider environment."
Pollution effects, affects everyone: children playing, human health, and all forms
of life
All types of pollution –
*water
*soil pollution – have an impact on the living environment.
*air
These effects in living organisms may range from mild discomfort to
serious diseases such as cancer to physical deformities; ex., extra or missing
limbs in frogs.
Air pollutants
Air pollutants come in the form of gases and finely divided solid and liquid aerosols (“any solid or liquid particles suspended in the air”).
Air pollutants can also be of:
* Primary air pollutants are the ones that are emitted directly into the
atmosphere by the sources (such as power-generating plants).
* Secondary air pollutants are the ones that are formed as a result of reactions between primary pollutants and other elements in the atmosphere, such as ozone.
One of the most important characteristics of air pollutants is their trans-boundary nature - they can easily travel and affect the areas far away from their points of origination.
Gaseous Air Pollutants types of gaseous air pollutants:
* Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
* Oxides of nitrogen (NOx = NO + NO2)
* Ozone (O3)
*ammonia,
*carbon monoxide,
*volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
*persistent organic pollutants (POPs).
Sulfur dioxide and nitric oxide (NO) are the primary air pollutants, and ozone is
a secondary pollutant (though there are negligible direct emissions of the gas
itself).
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is both a primary and secondary air pollutant.
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)-is a colorless gas with a pungent, suffocating odor. It is a
dangerous air pollutant because it is corrosive to organic materials and it
irritates the eyes, nose and lungs. Anthropogenic Sources of Sulfur Dioxide
Emissions Sulfur is contained within all fossil fuels, and is released in the form
of sulfur dioxide (SO2) during fossil fuel combustion. Fossil fuel combustion
accounts for almost all anthropogenic (human-caused) sulfur emissions. Sulfu
contents in fossil fuels range between 0.1% and 4% in oil, oil by-products and
coal, and up to 40% in natural gas (when immediately extracted from the well;
however, the sulfur is efficiently removed during the processing of gas before
distribution, therefore, combustion of natural gas is not a major source of sulfur
emissions.
Effects of Sulfur Dioxide Emissions
Sulfur dioxide found in the air produces following effects:
* Irritates eyes, nose, throat
* Damages lungs when inhaled
* As part of acid rain:
o acidifies lakes and streams
o destroys plant and fish life in lakes and streams
o may deplete mineral nutrients in the soil
o may cause reduction of forest and agricultural yields
o corrodes metals
o damages surfaces of buildings.
Environmental Pollution Effects on Humans
* Pollution causes not only physical disabilities but also psychological
and behavioral disorders in people:
* Reduced lung functioning
* Irritation of eyes, nose, mouth and throat
* Asthma attacks
* Respiratory symptoms such as coughing and wheezing
*Pollution effects Air Pollution in Philippines
* Increased respiratory disease such as bronchitis
* Reduced energy levels
* Headaches and dizziness
* Disruption of endocrine, reproductive and immune systems
* Neurobehavioral disorders
* Cardiovascular problems
* Cancer
* Premature death
Water Pollution Effects
*Waterborne diseases caused by polluted drinking water:
* Typhoid
* Amoebiasis
* Giardiasis
* Ascariasis
* Hookworm
*Waterborne diseases caused by polluted beach water:
* Rashes, ear ache, pink eye
* Respiratory infections
* Hepatitis, encephalitis, gastroenteritis, diarrhoea, vomiting, and stomach aches
Conditions related to water polluted by chemicals (such as pesticides,
hydrocarbons, persistent organic pollutants, heavy metals etc):
In the womb: may cause neurological problems including slower reflexes, learning
deficits, delayed or incomplete mental development, autism and brain damage
In adults: Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease, heart disease, and even death
Water pollution
may also result from interactions between water and contaminated
soil, as well as from deposition of air contaminants (such as acid rain)
Damage to people may be caused by fish foods coming from polluted water (a well
known example is high mercury levels in fish)
Damage to people may be caused by vegetable crops grown / washed with polluted
water (author’s own conclusion)
Air Pollution/Clean Air Act
“WITHOUT LEGISLATION, GOVERNMENT HAS NO CHOICE BUT TO ENFORCE CLEAN AIR ACT”.
Malacanang conceded that the government has no choice but to enforce the Clean Air
Act (CAA) of 1999 starting the month of January, after Congress failed to pass a
joint resolution for its temporary suspension.
JEEPNEY DRIVERS ARE LEADING VICTIMS OF AIR POLLUTION. Jeepney drivers are
the leading victims of air pollution in the Philippines in 2002, a recent World
Bank report showed. The prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases
(COPD) is highest among jeepney drivers, affecting 32.5 percent of them. Citing
the study of the University of the Philippines' College of Public Health, the
World Bank said that commuters had the lowest prevalence for COPD at 14.8 percent.
Doctors say that COPD, such as emphysema and chronic bronchitis, can be aggravated
by air pollution. Those with COPD are also more susceptible to PTB, which is
caused by an airborne bacterium. Victims of COPD suffer from chronic cough with
phlegm, wheezing, and shortness of breath. They also sustain irreversible damage
to the lungs. PTB sufferers' lungs also develop permanent scars. At least 22
million Filipinos are suffering or exposed to various stages of TB. This means
that one out of four Filipinos are exposed to the disease.
AIR POLLUTION KILLS 2,000 PINOYS A YEAR. How much does filthy air cost? The annual
payment we make for breathing dirty air, according to the World Bank, is: 2,000
lives lost prematurely and $1.5 billion in lost wages, medical treatment in the
urban sprawl of Metro Manila, and the cities of Cebu, Davao and Baguio (P79.5
billion) — a figure equivalent to two percent of the country’s annual gross
domestic product (GDP). The annual death toll due to air pollution was cited by
Transportation and Communications Secretary Leandro Mendoza from the World Bank’s
Philippines Environment Monitor 2002 report. Mendoza also cited the report as
showing that as many as 9,000 Filipinos in these urban areas suffer from chronic
bronchitis. After baring these alarming figures, Mendoza said the Arroyo
administration is firm in its resolve to immediately implement the Clean Air Act
of 1999 (Republic Act 8749).
Hundreds of drivers brought traffic in the National Capital Region to an even
slower crawl than usual as they took their vehicles in a procession to Malacanang
to protest the new anti-pollution law. The Clean Air Act calls for emission tests
and the phasing out of two-stroke engines. The reprieve--a suspension for one
month of the Metro Manila Development Authority's resolution phasing out
two-stroke tricycles--came after the drivers' prayer rally on Mendiola caused a
major traffic jam on streets near the Palace. The National Confederation of
Tricycle Drivers and Operators Association of the Philippines (Nactodap) said the
resolution jeopardized the livelihood of thousands of tricycle drivers. "Its
implementation was the start of our sector's Calvary.”
The two sides reached an agreement after holding negotiations at an eatery
on Mendiola.
Aside from the suspension, the government also agreed to set up an inter-agency
committee under the Department of Transportation and Communications that would
include representatives from Nactodap, non-government organizations, manufacturers
and other government agencies. The committee will help ensure that tricycle
drivers are consulted in the shaping of new government policy affecting their
sector.
The one-month reprieve may have won the day for drivers and operators, but the
country of 80 million people has been losing the battle against smog and its ill
effects on health. In November, the World Bank warned that air pollution would
cost the Philippines almost 1.5 billion dollars per year in medical treatment,
lost wages and low productivity. A study by the World Bank showed fine particle
emissions caused an estimated 2,000 premature deaths and 9,000 cases of chronic
bronchitis each year in the nation's four largest cities.
"The Clean Air Act... is a law and there were talks, I think in one (of the) LEDAC
meetings attended by congressmen and senators. There was a proposal that it might
need a joint resolution to temporarily suspend the implementation of the Clean Air
Act for six months,” The Malacañang noted that "this joint resolution did not push
through. So the implementation of the Clean Air Act proceeds." Reaction to
warnings by leaders of jeepney operators’ and drivers’ associations that they will
have to file a petition for fare hikes to compensate for the additional expenses
they would incur in order to comply with the Clean Air Act. The act, which was
made into law under Republic Act 8749, mandates all jeepney and public transport
operators to use environment-friendly yet more expensive unleaded diesel that
would require them to recondition their diesel engines, which could prove costly
to them.
Renewable and Non renewable
“Living Green Is Fashionable These Days”
Living Green has become fashionable, but too many people are still not listening.
With everyone seemingly going green around us, there's still a great deal of
misunderstanding or confusion about what it means to go green. Many people, and a
great majority, don't really get what the terms eco-friendly, sustainable, or
earth-conscious mean?
“In a speech in which embattled U.S. President Barack Obama badly needed to reinvent himself, the nation's chief executive focused on initiatives designed to add value to the U.S. economy and create jobs. Renewable energy technology was front-and-center as one of those initiatives.” That means everything from alternate energy sources, like wind and solar power, to cleaner transportation, like high-speed rail. And, this new focus on renewable energy will provide a bounty of investment opportunities… if you know where to look. Our actions may determine the survival of Earth and our own continued well-being in the not so distant future."
Renewable energy sources-Energy sources that are continually renewed and will
never run out, such as the sun, the wind, and waves. They are also called
alternative or sustainable energy sources.
Non-renewable energy sources-Energy sources that come from fossil fuels, such as
coal, oil, and natural gas, formed over millions of years from fossilized plants
and animals (yup, dinosaurs), and that once used cannot be replaced.
Sustainable development- or low-impact living, as it relates to a way of life,
refers to our ability to use natural resources in such a way that we ensure their
availability for generations to come, ideally to the end of time-or forever and
ever.
Sustainability is the ability to endure-or last forever. This ability depends on
the continuation of the natural cycle of life on earth-all living things-and their
biological systems without disruption. These processes have sustained life on
Earth for millions of years.
What causes the undisputable climate change and global warming?
• The Industrial Revolution,
• the population explosion,
• Our general disregards and overconsumption of our natural resources have
caused irreparable damage.
• Many delicate ecosystems have suffered, thereby causing an imbalance in
the natural cycle of life on the planet, negatively impacting all living systems.
What must we do to help?
Sustainable development is based on the idea that we must now take steps to not
use up the world's resources in the present to meet our current needs and to make
certain that they will be available for our descendants. Living green refers to
living a sustainable lifestyle:
• Where individuals, or communities, attempt to reduce their carbon
footprint (Carbon footprint--It is the sum of all your activities and a measure of
your ecological impact on the planet), or ecological impact, by living in a manner
that uses Earth's natural resources responsibly and respectfully.
• This includes changing how they live by adopting sustainable habits of
recycling, reducing waste, using alternative sources of energy, conservation of
natural resources, and eating organically-grown food.
• Taking steps to reduce consumption and waste, recycle more, use less fuel,
conserve water and electricity, and purchase recycled, eco-friendly, or organic
products lowers your impact.
Mineral Depletion, Deforestation, Coral Bleaching, Mangrove Ecosystem
Habitat loss is caused by: population growth and urbanization demand for live
fish, lack of control of emissions, mangrove deforestation and sand and coral
mining. The focused on marine biodiversity and fisheries, recreation and
pollution flowing on bodies of water causes great damage in depletion of our
natural resources. Informing policy for better management of the ecosystem,
especially in the context of increased population growth and exploitation of
ecosystem resources could help. Government must do an action that is needs to
manage the existing local, regional and national problems.
The resource depletion and habitat degradation include:
* demand for clean water,
* Lack of sewage treatment,
*overexploitation of marine resources,
* The socio-economic factors of poor oversight and lack of economic alternatives
(poverty).
*Solid waste pollution is also a driver affecting cultural services
La Niña and El Niña
"Here comes La Niña and El Niño"
The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration(PAGASA) based its forecast from the increases in the incidence of typhoons, floods and frequent heavy rains since November last year and now
“Here comes the El Niño”.
Strong rains, flash floods, erosion, crop losses - these are just some of the
problems Filipinos will encounter as La Niña hit the country.
The climate in the Philippines
El Niño is the opposite of the phenomenon called La Niña, which was known
originally recognized by fishermen off the coast of South America as the
appearance of unusually warm water in the Pacific Ocean, occurring near the
beginning of the year.
El Niño means "the Little Boy" or "Christ Child" in Spanish. The name was used for
the tendency of the phenomenon to arrive around Christmas.
La Niña, on the other hand, means "the Little Girl." It is sometimes called "El
Viejo," "anti-El Niño," or simply "a cold event" or a cold episode.
El Niño and La Niña are opposite phases of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENS0)
cycle, with La Niña sometimes referred to as the cold phase of ENSO and El Niño as
the warm phase of ENSO. According to a primer prepared by the climatology and agro
meteorology branch of PAGASA, ENSO occurs in the Pacific basin every two to nine
years. It usually starts during the Northern winter (December to February) and
exhibits phase-locking to annual cycles (El Niño and rainfall fluctuations
associated with it tend to recur at the same time of the year). Once established,
it lasts until the first half of the following year, although at times it stays
longer (examples: 1939-1941 and 1989-1992 episodes). More importantly, El Niño
events are often preceded and/or followed by La Niña.
Like El Niño, which reverses normal weather patterns, La Niña "tends to
Accentuate the normal patterns," says Dr. Michael Coughlan, who is with the World
Climate Program, which is part of the Geneva-based World
Meteorological Organization, the United Nations weather-monitoring agency set up
in 1951.
In the tropics, global climate variations in La Niña tend to be opposite of those
of El Niño. "If you expect drought in the country with El Niño because of reduced
rainfall and less typhoons, there will be more than normal rainfall and the normal
but 'stronger typhoons' during a La Niña episode that will cause floods and
devastation of farms and property, "explained Dr. Rafael D. Guerrero III,
executive director of the Laguna-based Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine
Research and Development (PCAMRD).
Currently, scientists are still searching on possible mechanisms that could
trigger the warming (El Niño) or cooling (La Niña) of sea surface temperature in
the equatorial Pacific. "Once the warming or cooling has started or continued for
a certain period of time," PAGASA said, "There are already existing climate models
that could somehow predict its duration."
How does La Niña affect the country's weather?
PAGASA has this answer:"Effects of La Niña could be manifested in above the normal
rainfall conditions in major parts of the country, particularly along the eastern
sections. This is mainly due to more intense northeast monsoon and tropical
cyclone activities."
THE PLIGHT OF ENDANGERED SPECIES
Endangered species -is a population of organisms which is at risk of becoming extinct because it is either few in numbers, or threatened by changingenvironmental or predation parameters. Also it could mean that due to deforestation there may be a lack of food and/or water.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has calculated the percentage of endangered species as 40 percent of all organisms based on the sample of species that have been evaluated through 2006. (Note: the IUCN groups all threatened species for their summary purposes.)
Laws offering protection to conservation reliance species:
• Forbidding hunting,
• Restricting land development or creating preserves.
• Only a few of the many species at risk of extinction actually make it to
the lists and obtain legal protection. Many more species become extinct, or
potentially will become extinct,
There are now 41,415 species on the IUCN Red List and 16,306 of them are
threatened with extinction, up from 16,118 last year. This includes both
endangered animals and endangered plants.
One in four mammals, one in eight birds, one third of all amphibians and 70% of
the world’s assessed plants on the 2007 IUCN Red List are in jeopardy. The total
number of extinct species has reached 785 and a further 65 are only found in
captivity or in cultivation. In the last 500 years, human activity has forced over
800 species into extinction.
For every species that is alive today, perhaps a thousand more have lived
previously and become extinct. Most of these extinctions occurred before humans
evolved, and the species are known to us only through fossils. Extinctions are a
natural part of evolutionary processes, but through most of the history of life on
Earth, biological diversity has been increasing.
Periodically, however, major changes in the conditions on Earth have caused the
collapse of living systems, and large percentages of species a have become
extinct. These species will never return. It takes millions of years for life
forms to diversify again.
The current extinction crisis is unique, in that the loss of biodiversity is
occurring very rapidly, and the causes of the crisis are the activities of a
single species: human beings. Some scientists believe the current crisis began
when humans and their domestic animals first began to colonize the various parts
of the globe. Others believe it began around 1600, when human population growth
exploded, and the level of per capital resource consumption began to rise
dramatically in some parts of the world. Of the species that are best known, the
so-called "higher animals," more than one percent have become extinct in the last
400 years and the overwhelming majority of these extinctions are anthropogenic.
Many more species are in danger of becoming extinct if we do not act quickly to
conserve them.
Imagine a world without animals. It's difficult to do, but each day takes us
closer to such a world.
Imagine Animals puts a face on the animals that are in danger of vanishing from
Earth in the foreseeable .
The Siberian Tiger is a subspecies of tiger that is endangered; 3 subspecies of
tiger are already extinct.
The most endangered asiatic top predator, the dhole is on the edge of extinction.
To conserve the biodiversity of the planet, one must take into consideration the
reasons why so many species are becoming endangered.
• “Habitat loss is the most widespread cause of species endangerment in the
U.S., affecting 85% of imperiled species” .When an animal’s ecosystem is not
maintained, they lose their home and are either forced to adapt to new
surroundings or perish.
• Pollution is another factor that causes many species to become endangered,
especially a large proportion of aquatic life.
• over-exploitation
• Climate changes has led to the endangerment of several species.
The most important factor leading to the endangerment of the majority of wildlife
in the world is the human impact on the species and their environment. “As human
use of resources, energy, and space intensified over the past few centuries, the
diversity of life has been substantially diminished in most parts of the world”
(Ishwaran & Erdelen, 2006, p.179). Basically, as the human impact on the
environment increases, the diversity of life decreases. Humans are constantly
using the resources and space of other species for themselves, negatively
impacting the survival rate of many creatures.
Humans also set standards for which species they think should be saved and which
species they find unimportant or undesirable. For example, the coqui frog, an
invasive species in Hawaii, is so common there that its “nocturnal singing”
reduces the value of homes and prevents hotels from using rooms near forests.
Hawaiians have proposed eliminating the frog, and several wildlife managers want
to release a pathogen to kill the frogs (Minteer & Collins, 2005, p. 333). The
frog has decreased the value of homes and caused a loss of business for several
hotels, so the Hawaiians decided it was acceptable to get rid of the group of
coqui frog living near them.
The human impact on existing species is the issue of toe clipping in ecological
research. While ecologists are doing research on different species to advance
their knowledge of methods of conservation, they must take into consideration the
impact they have on the wildlife they are studying. Toe clipping “has been
reported to result in a number of adverse effects on the animals, including
inflammation and infection of the feet and limbs” (Minteer & Collins, 2005, p.
334). This example demonstrates how humans must take into consideration the
well-being of the animal even before they perform research to help conserve the
species. The human impact on species and their environments has many negative
effects. It is important for humans to help maintain all species in the world and
not deter their development. It has been found that the scrub mint contains an
anti-fungal agent and a natural insecticide (Wilcove & Master, 2008, p. 418) Also,
the deterioration of the bald eagle and the peregrine falcon “alerted people to
the potential health hazards associated with the widespread spraying of DDT and
other persistent pesticides” (Wilcove & Master, 2008, p. 418).
N. Bald Ibis at nest with a young chick. (Photo M. Abdallah)
Endangered species, breeding seasonally within the project area: the Northern
Bald Ibis (Geronticus eremita), a legendary and iconic bird considered to be one
of the rarest and most critically endangered wildlife species on earth. Between
1900 and 2002 the global population of the N. Bald Ibis declined by 97.8 percent.
Few birds have as colorful a history or as uncertain a future as this bird.
A semi-captive population of N. Bald Ibis has been kept in Birecik
N. Bald Ibises “survivors” feeding on Al Badia rangelands. (Photo G. Serra)
The N. Bald Ibis has never disappeared completely from Al Badia and its decline
took place significantly later in time than officially reported. The N. Bald Ibis
was still common in Al Badia up to 20 years ago, and even abundant up to 30 years
ago, according to interviews with people from local communities.
The seven birds discovered may well be the last remnants of the eastern population
of the N. Bald Ibis. After the discovery, the three nests were guarded, monitored
and photo-documented throughout the whole breeding cycle of about 5 months. Three
chicks were successfully fledged, out of three breeding pairs, about 40 days after
hatching. With the involvement of local eco guide trainees from the Al Talila
reserve, data were collected about the breeding cycle, the feeding habitats and
the diet. These data were used to prepare scientifically based urgent conservation
recommendations for submission to Syrian decision-makers.
They believe that the N. Bald Ibis is responsible for the transmigration of souls.
The bird is also mentioned in the Bible in the form of the legendary messenger of
fertility released by Noah from the ark. Moreover, Muslims believed that the N.
Bald Ibis guides the haji pilgrims to Mecca (interestingly, the migration route of
this bird probably passes through western Saudi Arabia, and thus also through
Mecca).
Pollution effects, affects everyone: children playing, human health, and all forms
of life
All types of pollution –
*water
*soil pollution – have an impact on the living environment.
*air
These effects in living organisms may range from mild discomfort to
serious diseases such as cancer to physical deformities; ex., extra or missing
limbs in frogs.
Air pollutants
Air pollutants come in the form of gases and finely divided solid and liquid aerosols (“any solid or liquid particles suspended in the air”).
Air pollutants can also be of:
* Primary air pollutants are the ones that are emitted directly into the
atmosphere by the sources (such as power-generating plants).
* Secondary air pollutants are the ones that are formed as a result of reactions between primary pollutants and other elements in the atmosphere, such as ozone.
One of the most important characteristics of air pollutants is their trans-boundary nature - they can easily travel and affect the areas far away from their points of origination.
Gaseous Air Pollutants types of gaseous air pollutants:
* Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
* Oxides of nitrogen (NOx = NO + NO2)
* Ozone (O3)
*ammonia,
*carbon monoxide,
*volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
*persistent organic pollutants (POPs).
Sulfur dioxide and nitric oxide (NO) are the primary air pollutants, and ozone is
a secondary pollutant (though there are negligible direct emissions of the gas
itself).
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is both a primary and secondary air pollutant.
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)-is a colorless gas with a pungent, suffocating odor. It is a
dangerous air pollutant because it is corrosive to organic materials and it
irritates the eyes, nose and lungs. Anthropogenic Sources of Sulfur Dioxide
Emissions Sulfur is contained within all fossil fuels, and is released in the form
of sulfur dioxide (SO2) during fossil fuel combustion. Fossil fuel combustion
accounts for almost all anthropogenic (human-caused) sulfur emissions. Sulfu
contents in fossil fuels range between 0.1% and 4% in oil, oil by-products and
coal, and up to 40% in natural gas (when immediately extracted from the well;
however, the sulfur is efficiently removed during the processing of gas before
distribution, therefore, combustion of natural gas is not a major source of sulfur
emissions.
Effects of Sulfur Dioxide Emissions
Sulfur dioxide found in the air produces following effects:
* Irritates eyes, nose, throat
* Damages lungs when inhaled
* As part of acid rain:
o acidifies lakes and streams
o destroys plant and fish life in lakes and streams
o may deplete mineral nutrients in the soil
o may cause reduction of forest and agricultural yields
o corrodes metals
o damages surfaces of buildings.
Environmental Pollution Effects on Humans
* Pollution causes not only physical disabilities but also psychological
and behavioral disorders in people:
* Reduced lung functioning
* Irritation of eyes, nose, mouth and throat
* Asthma attacks
* Respiratory symptoms such as coughing and wheezing
*Pollution effects Air Pollution in Philippines
* Increased respiratory disease such as bronchitis
* Reduced energy levels
* Headaches and dizziness
* Disruption of endocrine, reproductive and immune systems
* Neurobehavioral disorders
* Cardiovascular problems
* Cancer
* Premature death
Water Pollution Effects
*Waterborne diseases caused by polluted drinking water:
* Typhoid
* Amoebiasis
* Giardiasis
* Ascariasis
* Hookworm
*Waterborne diseases caused by polluted beach water:
* Rashes, ear ache, pink eye
* Respiratory infections
* Hepatitis, encephalitis, gastroenteritis, diarrhoea, vomiting, and stomach aches
Conditions related to water polluted by chemicals (such as pesticides,
hydrocarbons, persistent organic pollutants, heavy metals etc):
In the womb: may cause neurological problems including slower reflexes, learning
deficits, delayed or incomplete mental development, autism and brain damage
In adults: Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease, heart disease, and even death
Water pollution
may also result from interactions between water and contaminated
soil, as well as from deposition of air contaminants (such as acid rain)
Damage to people may be caused by fish foods coming from polluted water (a well
known example is high mercury levels in fish)
Damage to people may be caused by vegetable crops grown / washed with polluted
water (author’s own conclusion)
Air Pollution/Clean Air Act
“WITHOUT LEGISLATION, GOVERNMENT HAS NO CHOICE BUT TO ENFORCE CLEAN AIR ACT”.
Malacanang conceded that the government has no choice but to enforce the Clean Air
Act (CAA) of 1999 starting the month of January, after Congress failed to pass a
joint resolution for its temporary suspension.
JEEPNEY DRIVERS ARE LEADING VICTIMS OF AIR POLLUTION. Jeepney drivers are
the leading victims of air pollution in the Philippines in 2002, a recent World
Bank report showed. The prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases
(COPD) is highest among jeepney drivers, affecting 32.5 percent of them. Citing
the study of the University of the Philippines' College of Public Health, the
World Bank said that commuters had the lowest prevalence for COPD at 14.8 percent.
Doctors say that COPD, such as emphysema and chronic bronchitis, can be aggravated
by air pollution. Those with COPD are also more susceptible to PTB, which is
caused by an airborne bacterium. Victims of COPD suffer from chronic cough with
phlegm, wheezing, and shortness of breath. They also sustain irreversible damage
to the lungs. PTB sufferers' lungs also develop permanent scars. At least 22
million Filipinos are suffering or exposed to various stages of TB. This means
that one out of four Filipinos are exposed to the disease.
AIR POLLUTION KILLS 2,000 PINOYS A YEAR. How much does filthy air cost? The annual
payment we make for breathing dirty air, according to the World Bank, is: 2,000
lives lost prematurely and $1.5 billion in lost wages, medical treatment in the
urban sprawl of Metro Manila, and the cities of Cebu, Davao and Baguio (P79.5
billion) — a figure equivalent to two percent of the country’s annual gross
domestic product (GDP). The annual death toll due to air pollution was cited by
Transportation and Communications Secretary Leandro Mendoza from the World Bank’s
Philippines Environment Monitor 2002 report. Mendoza also cited the report as
showing that as many as 9,000 Filipinos in these urban areas suffer from chronic
bronchitis. After baring these alarming figures, Mendoza said the Arroyo
administration is firm in its resolve to immediately implement the Clean Air Act
of 1999 (Republic Act 8749).
Hundreds of drivers brought traffic in the National Capital Region to an even
slower crawl than usual as they took their vehicles in a procession to Malacanang
to protest the new anti-pollution law. The Clean Air Act calls for emission tests
and the phasing out of two-stroke engines. The reprieve--a suspension for one
month of the Metro Manila Development Authority's resolution phasing out
two-stroke tricycles--came after the drivers' prayer rally on Mendiola caused a
major traffic jam on streets near the Palace. The National Confederation of
Tricycle Drivers and Operators Association of the Philippines (Nactodap) said the
resolution jeopardized the livelihood of thousands of tricycle drivers. "Its
implementation was the start of our sector's Calvary.”
The two sides reached an agreement after holding negotiations at an eatery
on Mendiola.
Aside from the suspension, the government also agreed to set up an inter-agency
committee under the Department of Transportation and Communications that would
include representatives from Nactodap, non-government organizations, manufacturers
and other government agencies. The committee will help ensure that tricycle
drivers are consulted in the shaping of new government policy affecting their
sector.
The one-month reprieve may have won the day for drivers and operators, but the
country of 80 million people has been losing the battle against smog and its ill
effects on health. In November, the World Bank warned that air pollution would
cost the Philippines almost 1.5 billion dollars per year in medical treatment,
lost wages and low productivity. A study by the World Bank showed fine particle
emissions caused an estimated 2,000 premature deaths and 9,000 cases of chronic
bronchitis each year in the nation's four largest cities.
"The Clean Air Act... is a law and there were talks, I think in one (of the) LEDAC
meetings attended by congressmen and senators. There was a proposal that it might
need a joint resolution to temporarily suspend the implementation of the Clean Air
Act for six months,” The Malacañang noted that "this joint resolution did not push
through. So the implementation of the Clean Air Act proceeds." Reaction to
warnings by leaders of jeepney operators’ and drivers’ associations that they will
have to file a petition for fare hikes to compensate for the additional expenses
they would incur in order to comply with the Clean Air Act. The act, which was
made into law under Republic Act 8749, mandates all jeepney and public transport
operators to use environment-friendly yet more expensive unleaded diesel that
would require them to recondition their diesel engines, which could prove costly
to them.
Renewable and Non renewable
“Living Green Is Fashionable These Days”
Living Green has become fashionable, but too many people are still not listening.
With everyone seemingly going green around us, there's still a great deal of
misunderstanding or confusion about what it means to go green. Many people, and a
great majority, don't really get what the terms eco-friendly, sustainable, or
earth-conscious mean?
“In a speech in which embattled U.S. President Barack Obama badly needed to reinvent himself, the nation's chief executive focused on initiatives designed to add value to the U.S. economy and create jobs. Renewable energy technology was front-and-center as one of those initiatives.” That means everything from alternate energy sources, like wind and solar power, to cleaner transportation, like high-speed rail. And, this new focus on renewable energy will provide a bounty of investment opportunities… if you know where to look. Our actions may determine the survival of Earth and our own continued well-being in the not so distant future."
Renewable energy sources-Energy sources that are continually renewed and will
never run out, such as the sun, the wind, and waves. They are also called
alternative or sustainable energy sources.
Non-renewable energy sources-Energy sources that come from fossil fuels, such as
coal, oil, and natural gas, formed over millions of years from fossilized plants
and animals (yup, dinosaurs), and that once used cannot be replaced.
Sustainable development- or low-impact living, as it relates to a way of life,
refers to our ability to use natural resources in such a way that we ensure their
availability for generations to come, ideally to the end of time-or forever and
ever.
Sustainability is the ability to endure-or last forever. This ability depends on
the continuation of the natural cycle of life on earth-all living things-and their
biological systems without disruption. These processes have sustained life on
Earth for millions of years.
What causes the undisputable climate change and global warming?
• The Industrial Revolution,
• the population explosion,
• Our general disregards and overconsumption of our natural resources have
caused irreparable damage.
• Many delicate ecosystems have suffered, thereby causing an imbalance in
the natural cycle of life on the planet, negatively impacting all living systems.
What must we do to help?
Sustainable development is based on the idea that we must now take steps to not
use up the world's resources in the present to meet our current needs and to make
certain that they will be available for our descendants. Living green refers to
living a sustainable lifestyle:
• Where individuals, or communities, attempt to reduce their carbon
footprint (Carbon footprint--It is the sum of all your activities and a measure of
your ecological impact on the planet), or ecological impact, by living in a manner
that uses Earth's natural resources responsibly and respectfully.
• This includes changing how they live by adopting sustainable habits of
recycling, reducing waste, using alternative sources of energy, conservation of
natural resources, and eating organically-grown food.
• Taking steps to reduce consumption and waste, recycle more, use less fuel,
conserve water and electricity, and purchase recycled, eco-friendly, or organic
products lowers your impact.
Mineral Depletion, Deforestation, Coral Bleaching, Mangrove Ecosystem
Habitat loss is caused by: population growth and urbanization demand for live
fish, lack of control of emissions, mangrove deforestation and sand and coral
mining. The focused on marine biodiversity and fisheries, recreation and
pollution flowing on bodies of water causes great damage in depletion of our
natural resources. Informing policy for better management of the ecosystem,
especially in the context of increased population growth and exploitation of
ecosystem resources could help. Government must do an action that is needs to
manage the existing local, regional and national problems.
The resource depletion and habitat degradation include:
* demand for clean water,
* Lack of sewage treatment,
*overexploitation of marine resources,
* The socio-economic factors of poor oversight and lack of economic alternatives
(poverty).
*Solid waste pollution is also a driver affecting cultural services
La Niña and El Niña
"Here comes La Niña and El Niño"
The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration(PAGASA) based its forecast from the increases in the incidence of typhoons, floods and frequent heavy rains since November last year and now
“Here comes the El Niño”.
Strong rains, flash floods, erosion, crop losses - these are just some of the
problems Filipinos will encounter as La Niña hit the country.
The climate in the Philippines
El Niño is the opposite of the phenomenon called La Niña, which was known
originally recognized by fishermen off the coast of South America as the
appearance of unusually warm water in the Pacific Ocean, occurring near the
beginning of the year.
El Niño means "the Little Boy" or "Christ Child" in Spanish. The name was used for
the tendency of the phenomenon to arrive around Christmas.
La Niña, on the other hand, means "the Little Girl." It is sometimes called "El
Viejo," "anti-El Niño," or simply "a cold event" or a cold episode.
El Niño and La Niña are opposite phases of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENS0)
cycle, with La Niña sometimes referred to as the cold phase of ENSO and El Niño as
the warm phase of ENSO. According to a primer prepared by the climatology and agro
meteorology branch of PAGASA, ENSO occurs in the Pacific basin every two to nine
years. It usually starts during the Northern winter (December to February) and
exhibits phase-locking to annual cycles (El Niño and rainfall fluctuations
associated with it tend to recur at the same time of the year). Once established,
it lasts until the first half of the following year, although at times it stays
longer (examples: 1939-1941 and 1989-1992 episodes). More importantly, El Niño
events are often preceded and/or followed by La Niña.
Like El Niño, which reverses normal weather patterns, La Niña "tends to
Accentuate the normal patterns," says Dr. Michael Coughlan, who is with the World
Climate Program, which is part of the Geneva-based World
Meteorological Organization, the United Nations weather-monitoring agency set up
in 1951.
In the tropics, global climate variations in La Niña tend to be opposite of those
of El Niño. "If you expect drought in the country with El Niño because of reduced
rainfall and less typhoons, there will be more than normal rainfall and the normal
but 'stronger typhoons' during a La Niña episode that will cause floods and
devastation of farms and property, "explained Dr. Rafael D. Guerrero III,
executive director of the Laguna-based Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine
Research and Development (PCAMRD).
Currently, scientists are still searching on possible mechanisms that could
trigger the warming (El Niño) or cooling (La Niña) of sea surface temperature in
the equatorial Pacific. "Once the warming or cooling has started or continued for
a certain period of time," PAGASA said, "There are already existing climate models
that could somehow predict its duration."
How does La Niña affect the country's weather?
PAGASA has this answer:"Effects of La Niña could be manifested in above the normal
rainfall conditions in major parts of the country, particularly along the eastern
sections. This is mainly due to more intense northeast monsoon and tropical
cyclone activities."
THE PLIGHT OF ENDANGERED SPECIES
Endangered species -is a population of organisms which is at risk of becoming extinct because it is either few in numbers, or threatened by changingenvironmental or predation parameters. Also it could mean that due to deforestation there may be a lack of food and/or water.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has calculated the percentage of endangered species as 40 percent of all organisms based on the sample of species that have been evaluated through 2006. (Note: the IUCN groups all threatened species for their summary purposes.)
Laws offering protection to conservation reliance species:
• Forbidding hunting,
• Restricting land development or creating preserves.
• Only a few of the many species at risk of extinction actually make it to
the lists and obtain legal protection. Many more species become extinct, or
potentially will become extinct,
There are now 41,415 species on the IUCN Red List and 16,306 of them are
threatened with extinction, up from 16,118 last year. This includes both
endangered animals and endangered plants.
One in four mammals, one in eight birds, one third of all amphibians and 70% of
the world’s assessed plants on the 2007 IUCN Red List are in jeopardy. The total
number of extinct species has reached 785 and a further 65 are only found in
captivity or in cultivation. In the last 500 years, human activity has forced over
800 species into extinction.
For every species that is alive today, perhaps a thousand more have lived
previously and become extinct. Most of these extinctions occurred before humans
evolved, and the species are known to us only through fossils. Extinctions are a
natural part of evolutionary processes, but through most of the history of life on
Earth, biological diversity has been increasing.
Periodically, however, major changes in the conditions on Earth have caused the
collapse of living systems, and large percentages of species a have become
extinct. These species will never return. It takes millions of years for life
forms to diversify again.
The current extinction crisis is unique, in that the loss of biodiversity is
occurring very rapidly, and the causes of the crisis are the activities of a
single species: human beings. Some scientists believe the current crisis began
when humans and their domestic animals first began to colonize the various parts
of the globe. Others believe it began around 1600, when human population growth
exploded, and the level of per capital resource consumption began to rise
dramatically in some parts of the world. Of the species that are best known, the
so-called "higher animals," more than one percent have become extinct in the last
400 years and the overwhelming majority of these extinctions are anthropogenic.
Many more species are in danger of becoming extinct if we do not act quickly to
conserve them.
Imagine a world without animals. It's difficult to do, but each day takes us
closer to such a world.
Imagine Animals puts a face on the animals that are in danger of vanishing from
Earth in the foreseeable .
The Siberian Tiger is a subspecies of tiger that is endangered; 3 subspecies of
tiger are already extinct.
The most endangered asiatic top predator, the dhole is on the edge of extinction.
To conserve the biodiversity of the planet, one must take into consideration the
reasons why so many species are becoming endangered.
• “Habitat loss is the most widespread cause of species endangerment in the
U.S., affecting 85% of imperiled species” .When an animal’s ecosystem is not
maintained, they lose their home and are either forced to adapt to new
surroundings or perish.
• Pollution is another factor that causes many species to become endangered,
especially a large proportion of aquatic life.
• over-exploitation
• Climate changes has led to the endangerment of several species.
The most important factor leading to the endangerment of the majority of wildlife
in the world is the human impact on the species and their environment. “As human
use of resources, energy, and space intensified over the past few centuries, the
diversity of life has been substantially diminished in most parts of the world”
(Ishwaran & Erdelen, 2006, p.179). Basically, as the human impact on the
environment increases, the diversity of life decreases. Humans are constantly
using the resources and space of other species for themselves, negatively
impacting the survival rate of many creatures.
Humans also set standards for which species they think should be saved and which
species they find unimportant or undesirable. For example, the coqui frog, an
invasive species in Hawaii, is so common there that its “nocturnal singing”
reduces the value of homes and prevents hotels from using rooms near forests.
Hawaiians have proposed eliminating the frog, and several wildlife managers want
to release a pathogen to kill the frogs (Minteer & Collins, 2005, p. 333). The
frog has decreased the value of homes and caused a loss of business for several
hotels, so the Hawaiians decided it was acceptable to get rid of the group of
coqui frog living near them.
The human impact on existing species is the issue of toe clipping in ecological
research. While ecologists are doing research on different species to advance
their knowledge of methods of conservation, they must take into consideration the
impact they have on the wildlife they are studying. Toe clipping “has been
reported to result in a number of adverse effects on the animals, including
inflammation and infection of the feet and limbs” (Minteer & Collins, 2005, p.
334). This example demonstrates how humans must take into consideration the
well-being of the animal even before they perform research to help conserve the
species. The human impact on species and their environments has many negative
effects. It is important for humans to help maintain all species in the world and
not deter their development. It has been found that the scrub mint contains an
anti-fungal agent and a natural insecticide (Wilcove & Master, 2008, p. 418) Also,
the deterioration of the bald eagle and the peregrine falcon “alerted people to
the potential health hazards associated with the widespread spraying of DDT and
other persistent pesticides” (Wilcove & Master, 2008, p. 418).
N. Bald Ibis at nest with a young chick. (Photo M. Abdallah)
Endangered species, breeding seasonally within the project area: the Northern
Bald Ibis (Geronticus eremita), a legendary and iconic bird considered to be one
of the rarest and most critically endangered wildlife species on earth. Between
1900 and 2002 the global population of the N. Bald Ibis declined by 97.8 percent.
Few birds have as colorful a history or as uncertain a future as this bird.
A semi-captive population of N. Bald Ibis has been kept in Birecik
N. Bald Ibises “survivors” feeding on Al Badia rangelands. (Photo G. Serra)
The N. Bald Ibis has never disappeared completely from Al Badia and its decline
took place significantly later in time than officially reported. The N. Bald Ibis
was still common in Al Badia up to 20 years ago, and even abundant up to 30 years
ago, according to interviews with people from local communities.
The seven birds discovered may well be the last remnants of the eastern population
of the N. Bald Ibis. After the discovery, the three nests were guarded, monitored
and photo-documented throughout the whole breeding cycle of about 5 months. Three
chicks were successfully fledged, out of three breeding pairs, about 40 days after
hatching. With the involvement of local eco guide trainees from the Al Talila
reserve, data were collected about the breeding cycle, the feeding habitats and
the diet. These data were used to prepare scientifically based urgent conservation
recommendations for submission to Syrian decision-makers.
They believe that the N. Bald Ibis is responsible for the transmigration of souls.
The bird is also mentioned in the Bible in the form of the legendary messenger of
fertility released by Noah from the ark. Moreover, Muslims believed that the N.
Bald Ibis guides the haji pilgrims to Mecca (interestingly, the migration route of
this bird probably passes through western Saudi Arabia, and thus also through
Mecca).
Wednesday, March 10, 2010
Recent statistics on population show that the Philippines still has a high
population growth rate, primarily fuelled by high fertility rates—albeit
much lower than it was in the previous decades—and there is a highpositive correlation between fertility rates and poverty incidence at the
household level. While the high fertility level is not the sole cause of
poverty, it imposes a major constraint on the family as limited resources are
allocated to each member, which in turn limits human capital formation
and household savings.
population growth rate, primarily fuelled by high fertility rates—albeit
much lower than it was in the previous decades—and there is a highpositive correlation between fertility rates and poverty incidence at the
household level. While the high fertility level is not the sole cause of
poverty, it imposes a major constraint on the family as limited resources are
allocated to each member, which in turn limits human capital formation
and household savings.
Monday, February 15, 2010
Solid Waste Management (RA 9003), Biodegradable-vs-non biodegradable, and other hazardous wastes
[ REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9003 ]
AN ACT PROVIDING FOR AN ECOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM, CREATING THE NECESSARY INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISMS AND INCENTIVES, DECLARING CERTAIN ACTS PROHIBITED AND PROVIDING PENALTIES,APPROPRIATING FUNDS THEREFOR, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES.
In living organisms, waste is the unwanted substances or toxins that are expelled from them. More commonly, waste refers to the materials that are disposed of in a system ofwaste management.
Through proper waste management, it can be converted into valuable products by composting, or energy by waste-to-energy processes such as anaerobic digestion and incineration. As part of an integrated waste management system, waste-to-energy processes reduces the emission of landfill gas
Landfill gas;
Production:Landfill gas production results from chemical reactions and microbes acting upon the waste as the putrescible materials begins to break down in the landfill. Due to the constant production of landfill gas, the increase in pressure within the landfill provokes the gas's release
into the atmosphere.Composting: converts biodegradable waste into compost. Anaerobic digestion converts biodegradable waste biogas and soil amendment (digestate). Incineration as well as biogas can be used to generate electricity and/or heat for district heating.
The internationally accepted hierarchical approach to management of wastes is:
a) Waste avoidance / minimisation
b) Re-use and recycling (if it does not threaten public health safety and the environment).The biodegradable wastes are a good source for compost and biofuels. Resource recovery is also possible for non- biodegradable wastes if there are no constraints with regard to public health and the environment.
c) Treatment to destroy the hazardous components of the waste:
(i) Land treatment for biodegradable wastes
(ii) Incineration- This is a treatment technology involving destruction of hazardous component of waste by controlled burning at high temperatures. The resulting non- burnable ash and other residue must be removed and transported to a final disposal site. (
iii) Treatment of sewage- The treatment processes produce a liquid effluent and sewage sludge. The liquid effluent is discharged to natural waters subject to applicable standards and regulations. The sewage sludge can be used as a fertilizer on agricultural land (If it does not pose harm to health and the environment), otherwise it is incinerated.
d) Final disposal:
(ii) Ocean dumping or disposal at sea (subject to public health and environmental considerations).
(iii) Deep-well disposal:- This entails disposing of waste by injection into deep wells, in the rock which is below and completely isolated from all fresh water aquifers, thereby circumventing contamination of water table. However, disposal of liquid waste in deep wells has been linked to increase in occurrences of earthquakes in seismically active areas.
(iv) Concentrate and contain -This is used for wastes that defy known treatment method.
“In a society where we think of so many things as disposable, where we expect to be constantly discarding last year's gadget and replacing it with this year's model, do we end up tempted to think of people and relationships as disposable? If we live in a context where we construct everything from computers to buildings to relationships on the assumption that they'll need to be replaced before long, what have we lost? God is involved in building to last. He doesn't give up on the material of human lives and He asks us to approach one another and our physical world with the same commitment. God doesn't do 'waste'.”
- Rowan Williams
Ozone Depletion (Causes and Effects)
The ozone layer absorbs UVB ultraviolet light from the Sun, ozone layer depletion is expected to increase surface UVB levels, which could lead to damage, including increases in skin cancer. This was the reason for the Montreal Protocol. Although decreases in stratospheric ozone are well-tied to CFCs and there are good theoretical reasons to believe that decreases in ozone will lead to increases in surface UVB, there is no direct observational evidence linking ozone depletion to higher incidence of skin cancer in human beings. This is partly due to the fact that UVA, which has also been implicated in some forms of skin cancer, is not absorbed by ozone, and it is nearly impossible to control statistics for lifestyle changes in the populace
.Increases in surface UVB due to the ozone hole can be partially inferred by radiative transfer model calculations, but cannot be calculated from direct measurements because of the lack of reliable historical (pre-ozone-hole) surface UV data, although more recent surface UV observation measurement programmes exist (e.g. at Lauder, New Zealand).
Because it is this same UV radiation that creates ozone in the ozone layer from O2 (regular oxygen) in the first place, a reduction in stratospheric ozone would actually tend to increase photochemical production of ozone at lower levels (in the troposphere), although the overall observed trends in total column ozone still show a decrease, largely because ozone produced lower down has a naturally shorter photochemical lifetime, so it is destroyed before the concentrations could reach a level which would compensate for the ozone reduction higher up.The main public concern regarding the ozone hole has been the effects of surface UV on human health. So far, ozone depletion in most locations has been typically a few percent and, as noted above, no direct evidence of health damage is available in most latitudes. Were the high levels of depletion seen in the ozone hole ever to be common across the globe, the effects could be substantially more dramatic. As the ozone hole over Antarctica has in some instances grown so large as to reach southern parts of Australia and New Zealand, environmentalists have been concerned that the increase in surface UV could be significant.
Effects of ozone layer depletion on humans
UVB (the higher energy UV radiation absorbed by ozone) is generally accepted to be a contributory factor to skin cancer. In addition, increased surface UV leads to increased tropospheric ozone, which is a health risk to humans.[citation needed] The increased surface UV also represents an increase in the vitamin D synthetic capacity of the sunlight.
The cancer preventive effects of vitamin D represent a possible beneficial effect of ozone depletion. In terms of health costs, the possible benefits of increased UV irradiance may outweigh the burden.
Effects of ozone layer depletion on humans;
1. Basal and Squamous Cell Carcinomas -- The most common forms of skin cancer in humans, basal and squamous cell carcinomas, have been strongly linked to UVB exposure. The mechanism by which UVB induces these cancers is well understood — absorption of UVB radiation causes the pyrimidine bases in the DNA molecule to form dimers, resulting in transcription errors when the DNA replicates. These cancers are relatively mild and rarely fatal, although the treatment of squamous cell carcinoma sometimes requires extensive reconstructive surgery. By combining epidemiological data with results of animal studies, scientists have estimated that a one percent decrease in stratospheric ozone would increase the incidence of these cancers by 2%.
2. Malignant Melanoma -- Another form of skin cancer, malignant melanoma, is much less common but far more dangerous, being lethal in about 15% - 20% of the cases diagnosed. The relationship between malignant melanoma and ultraviolet exposure is not yet well understood, but it appears that both UVB and UVA are involved. Experiments on fish suggest that 90 to 95% of malignant melanomas may be due to UVA and visible radiation[21] whereas experiments on opossums suggest a larger role for UVB.[20] Because of this uncertainty, it is difficult to estimate the impact of ozone depletion on melanoma incidence. One study showed that a 10% increase in UVB radiation was associated with a 19% increase in melanomas fo
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